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<td align="right" valign="center"><img src="logo32.png" align="right" width="64" height="32" border="0"></td></tr></table><h1 align=center>Signals and Slots</h1>
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<p> Signals and slots are used for communication between objects. The
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signal/slot mechanism is a central feature of TQt and probably the
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part that differs most from other toolkits.
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<p> In GUI programming we often want a change in one widget to be notified
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to another widget. More generally, we want objects of any kind to be
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able to communicate with one another. For example if we were parsing
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an XML file we might want to notify a list view that we're using to
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represent the XML file's structure whenever we encounter a new tag.
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<p> Older toolkits achieve this kind of communication using callbacks. A
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callback is a pointer to a function, so if you want a processing
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function to notify you about some event you pass a pointer to another
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function (the callback) to the processing function. The processing
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function then calls the callback when appropriate. Callbacks have two
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fundamental flaws. Firstly they are not type safe. We can never be
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certain that the processing function will call the callback with the
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correct arguments. Secondly the callback is strongly coupled to the
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processing function since the processing function must know which
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callback to call.
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<p> <center><img src="abstract-connections.png"></center> <blockquote><p align="center"><em> An abstract view of some signals and slots connections
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</em></p>
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</blockquote><p> In TQt we have an alternative to the callback technique. We use signals
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and slots. A signal is emitted when a particular event occurs. TQt's
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widgets have many pre-defined signals, but we can always subclass to
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add our own. A slot is a function that is called in reponse to a
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particular signal. TQt's widgets have many pre-defined slots, but it is
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common practice to add your own slots so that you can handle the
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signals that you are interested in.
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<p> The signals and slots mechanism is type safe: the signature of a
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signal must match the signature of the receiving slot. (In fact a slot
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may have a shorter signature than the signal it receives because it
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can ignore extra arguments.) Since the signatures are compatible, the
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compiler can help us detect type mismatches. Signals and slots are
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loosely coupled: a class which emits a signal neither knows nor cares
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which slots receive the signal. TQt's signals and slots mechanism
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ensures that if you connect a signal to a slot, the slot will be
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called with the signal's parameters at the right time. Signals and
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slots can take any number of arguments of any type. They are
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completely typesafe: no more callback core dumps!
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<p> All classes that inherit from <a href="ntqobject.html">TQObject</a> or one of its subclasses
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(e.g. <a href="ntqwidget.html">TQWidget</a>) can contain signals and slots. Signals are emitted by
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objects when they change their state in a way that may be interesting
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to the outside world. This is all the object does to communicate. It
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does not know or care whether anything is receiving the signals it
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emits. This is true information encapsulation, and ensures that the
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object can be used as a software component.
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<p> <center><img src="concrete-connections.png"></center> <blockquote><p align="center"><em> An example of signals and slots connections
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</em></p>
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</blockquote><p> Slots can be used for receiving signals, but they are also normal
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member functions. Just as an object does not know if anything receives
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its signals, a slot does not know if it has any signals connected to
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it. This ensures that truly independent components can be created with
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TQt.
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<p> You can connect as many signals as you want to a single slot, and a
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signal can be connected to as many slots as you desire. It is even
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possible to connect a signal directly to another signal. (This will
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emit the second signal immediately whenever the first is emitted.)
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<p> Together, signals and slots make up a powerful component programming
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mechanism.
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<p> <h2> A Small Example
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</h2>
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<a name="1"></a><p> A minimal C++ class declaration might read:
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<p> <pre>
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class Foo
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{
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public:
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Foo();
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int value() const { return val; }
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void setValue( int );
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private:
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int val;
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};
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</pre>
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<p> A small TQt class might read:
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<p> <pre>
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class Foo : public <a href="ntqobject.html">TQObject</a>
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{
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<a href="metaobjects.html#TQ_OBJECT">TQ_OBJECT</a>
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public:
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Foo();
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int value() const { return val; }
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public slots:
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void setValue( int );
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signals:
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void valueChanged( int );
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private:
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int val;
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};
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</pre>
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<p> This class has the same internal state, and public methods to access the
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state, but in addition it has support for component programming using
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signals and slots: this class can tell the outside world that its state
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has changed by emitting a signal, <tt>valueChanged()</tt>, and it has
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a slot which other objects can send signals to.
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<p> All classes that contain signals or slots must mention TQ_OBJECT in
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their declaration.
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<p> Slots are implemented by the application programmer.
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Here is a possible implementation of Foo::setValue():
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<p> <pre>
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void Foo::setValue( int v )
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{
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if ( v != val ) {
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val = v;
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emit valueChanged(v);
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}
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}
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</pre>
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<p> The line <tt>emit valueChanged(v)</tt> emits the signal
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<tt>valueChanged</tt> from the object. As you can see, you emit a
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signal by using <tt>emit signal(arguments)</tt>.
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<p> Here is one way to connect two of these objects together:
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<p> <pre>
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Foo a, b;
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connect(&a, TQ_SIGNAL(valueChanged(int)), &b, TQ_SLOT(setValue(int)));
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b.setValue( 11 ); // a == undefined b == 11
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a.setValue( 79 ); // a == 79 b == 79
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b.value(); // returns 79
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</pre>
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<p> Calling <tt>a.setValue(79)</tt> will make <tt>a</tt> emit a <tt>valueChanged()</tt>
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signal, which <tt>b</tt> will receive in its <tt>setValue()</tt> slot,
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i.e. <tt>b.setValue(79)</tt> is called. <tt>b</tt> will then, in turn,
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emit the same <tt>valueChanged()</tt> signal, but since no slot has been
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connected to <tt>b</tt>'s <tt>valueChanged()</tt> signal, nothing happens (the
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signal is ignored).
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<p> Note that the <tt>setValue()</tt> function sets the value and emits
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the signal only if <tt>v != val</tt>. This prevents infinite looping
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in the case of cyclic connections (e.g. if <tt>b.valueChanged()</tt>
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were connected to <tt>a.setValue()</tt>).
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<p> A signal is emitted for <em>every</em> connection you make, so if you
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duplicate a connection, two signals will be emitted. You can always
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break a connection using <a href="ntqobject.html#disconnect">TQObject::disconnect</a>().
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<p> This example illustrates that objects can work together without knowing
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about each other, as long as there is someone around to set up a
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connection between them initially.
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<p> The preprocessor changes or removes the <tt>signals</tt>, <tt>slots</tt> and
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<tt>emit</tt> keywords so that the compiler is presented with standard C++.
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<p> Run the <a href="moc.html">moc</a> on class definitions that contain
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signals or slots. This produces a C++ source file which should be compiled
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and linked with the other object files for the application. If you use
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<a href="qmake-manual.html">qmake</a>, the makefile rules to
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automatically invoke the <a href="moc.html">moc</a> will be added to
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your makefile for you.
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<p> <h2> Signals
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</h2>
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<a name="2"></a><p> Signals are emitted by an object when its internal state has changed
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in some way that might be interesting to the object's client or owner.
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Only the class that defines a signal and its subclasses can emit the
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signal.
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<p> A list box, for example, emits both <tt>clicked()</tt> and
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<tt>currentChanged()</tt> signals. Most objects will probably only be
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interested in <tt>currentChanged()</tt> which gives the current list item
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whether the user clicked it or used the arrow keys to move to it. But
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some objects may only want to know which item was clicked. If the
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signal is interesting to two different objects you just connect the
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signal to slots in both objects.
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<p> When a signal is emitted, the slots connected to it are executed
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immediately, just like a normal function call. The signal/slot
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mechanism is totally independent of any GUI event loop. The
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<tt>emit</tt> will return when all slots have returned.
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<p> If several slots are connected to one signal, the slots will be
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executed one after the other, in an arbitrary order, when the signal
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is emitted.
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<p> Signals are automatically generated by the <a href="moc.html">moc</a>
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and must not be implemented in the <tt>.cpp</tt> file. They can never have
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return types (i.e. use <tt>void</tt>).
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<p> A note about arguments. Our experience shows that signals and slots
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are more reusable if they do <em>not</em> use special types. If <a href="ntqscrollbar.html#valueChanged">TQScrollBar::valueChanged</a>() were to use a special type such as the
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hypothetical <tt>TQRangeControl::Range</tt>, it could only be connected to
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slots designed specifically for <a href="ntqrangecontrol.html">TQRangeControl</a>. Something as simple as
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the program in <a href="tutorial1-05.html">Tutorial #1 part 5</a>
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would be impossible.
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<p> <h2> Slots
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</h2>
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<a name="3"></a><p> A slot is called when a signal connected to it is emitted. Slots are
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normal C++ functions and can be called normally; their only special
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feature is that signals can be connected to them. A slot's arguments
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cannot have default values, and, like signals, it is rarely wise to
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use your own custom types for slot arguments.
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<p> Since slots are normal member functions with just a little extra
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spice, they have access rights like ordinary member functions. A
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slot's access right determines who can connect to it:
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<p> A <tt>public slots</tt> section contains slots that anyone can connect
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signals to. This is very useful for component programming: you create
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objects that know nothing about each other, connect their signals and
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slots so that information is passed correctly, and, like a model
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railway, turn it on and leave it running.
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<p> A <tt>protected slots</tt> section contains slots that this class and its
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subclasses may connect signals to. This is intended for slots that are
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part of the class's implementation rather than its interface to the
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rest of the world.
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<p> A <tt>private slots</tt> section contains slots that only the class itself
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may connect signals to. This is intended for very tightly connected
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classes, where even subclasses aren't trusted to get the connections
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right.
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<p> You can also define slots to be virtual, which we have found quite
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useful in practice.
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<p> The signals and slots mechanism is efficient, but not quite as fast as
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"real" callbacks. Signals and slots are slightly slower because of the
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increased flexibility they provide, although the difference for real
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applications is insignificant. In general, emitting a signal that is
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connected to some slots, is approximately ten times slower than
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calling the receivers directly, with non-virtual function calls. This
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is the overhead required to locate the connection object, to safely
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iterate over all connections (i.e. checking that subsequent receivers
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have not been destroyed during the emission) and to marshall any
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parameters in a generic fashion. While ten non-virtual function calls
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may sound like a lot, it's much less overhead than any 'new' or
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'delete' operation, for example. As soon as you perform a string,
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vector or list operation that behind the scene requires 'new' or
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'delete', the signals and slots overhead is only responsible for a
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very small proportion of the complete function call costs. The same is
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true whenever you do a system call in a slot; or indirectly call more
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than ten functions. On an i586-500, you can emit around 2,000,000
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signals per second connected to one receiver, or around 1,200,000 per
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second connected to two receivers. The simplicity and flexibility of
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the signals and slots mechanism is well worth the overhead, which your
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users won't even notice.
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<p> <h2> Meta Object Information
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</h2>
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<a name="4"></a><p> The <a href="metaobjects.html#meta-object">meta object</a> compiler (<a href="moc.html"><a href="moc.html#moc">moc</a></a>) parses the class
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declaration in a C++ file and generates C++ code that initializes the
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meta object. The meta object contains the names of all the signal and
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slot members, as well as pointers to these functions. (For more
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information on TQt's Meta Object System, see <a href="templates.html">Why
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doesn't TQt use templates for signals and slots?</a>.)
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<p> The meta object contains additional information such as the object's <a href="ntqobject.html#className">class name</a>. You can also check if an object
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<a href="ntqobject.html#inherits">inherits</a> a specific class, for example:
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<p> <pre>
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if ( widget->inherits("TQButton") ) {
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// yes, it is a push button, radio button etc.
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}
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</pre>
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<p> <h2> A Real Example
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</h2>
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<a name="5"></a><p> Here is a simple commented example (code fragments from <a href="qlcdnumber-h.html">ntqlcdnumber.h</a> ).
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<p> <pre>
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#include "ntqframe.h"
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#include "ntqbitarray.h"
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class TQLCDNumber : public <a href="ntqframe.html">TQFrame</a>
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</pre>
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<p> <a href="ntqlcdnumber.html">TQLCDNumber</a> inherits <a href="ntqobject.html">TQObject</a>, which has most of the signal/slot
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knowledge, via <a href="ntqframe.html">TQFrame</a> and <a href="ntqwidget.html">TQWidget</a>, and #include's the relevant
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declarations.
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<p> <pre>
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{
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TQ_OBJECT
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</pre>
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<p> TQ_OBJECT is expanded by the preprocessor to declare several member
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functions that are implemented by the moc; if you get compiler errors
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along the lines of "virtual function TQButton::className not defined"
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you have probably forgotten to <a href="moc.html">run the moc</a> or to
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include the moc output in the link command.
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<p> <pre>
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public:
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<a href="ntqlcdnumber.html">TQLCDNumber</a>( <a href="ntqwidget.html">TQWidget</a> *parent=0, const char *name=0 );
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TQLCDNumber( uint numDigits, TQWidget *parent=0, const char *name=0 );
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</pre>
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<p> It's not obviously relevant to the moc, but if you inherit TQWidget you
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almost certainly want to have the <em>parent</em> and <em>name</em>
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arguments in your constructors, and pass them to the parent
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constructor.
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<p> Some destructors and member functions are omitted here; the moc
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ignores member functions.
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<p> <pre>
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signals:
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void overflow();
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</pre>
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<p> <a href="ntqlcdnumber.html">TQLCDNumber</a> emits a signal when it is asked to show an impossible
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value.
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<p> If you don't care about overflow, or you know that overflow cannot
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occur, you can ignore the overflow() signal, i.e. don't connect it to
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any slot.
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<p> If, on the other hand, you want to call two different error functions
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when the number overflows, simply connect the signal to two different
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slots. TQt will call both (in arbitrary order).
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<p> <pre>
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public slots:
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void display( int num );
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void display( double num );
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void display( const char *str );
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void setHexMode();
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void setDecMode();
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void setOctMode();
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void setBinMode();
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void smallDecimalPoint( bool );
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</pre>
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<p> A slot is a receiving function, used to get information about state
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changes in other widgets. TQLCDNumber uses it, as the code above
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indicates, to set the displayed number. Since <tt>display()</tt> is part
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of the class's interface with the rest of the program, the slot is
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public.
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<p> Several of the example programs connect the newValue() signal of a
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<a href="ntqscrollbar.html">TQScrollBar</a> to the display() slot, so the LCD number continuously shows
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the value of the scroll bar.
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<p> Note that display() is overloaded; TQt will select the appropriate version
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when you connect a signal to the slot. With callbacks, you'd have to find
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five different names and keep track of the types yourself.
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<p> Some irrelevant member functions have been omitted from this
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example.
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<p> <pre>
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};
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</pre>
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<p>
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<p><address><hr><div align=center>
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<td>Copyright © 2007
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<a href="troll.html">Trolltech</a><td align=center><a href="trademarks.html">Trademarks</a>
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<td align=right><div align=right>TQt 3.3.8</div>
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</table></div></address></body>
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